Discuss how effective boot camps are for reducing future criminal behavior Essay

Discuss how effective boot camps are for reducing future criminal behavior. One type of intervention used to treat conduct disorder is the boot camp. The basic idea is that disruptive behaviors can be corrected by strict behavioral regulation and an emphasis on skills training (Weis & Toolis 2009). The intention of boot camps is to shock juveniles into complying and exhibiting more pro-social behaviors. Unfortunately, this method of rehabilitation is not based on empirical evidence nor supported by research (Garascia, 2005). Boot camps are controversial because they are not proven to be effective or appropriate for treating juvenile delinquents (Garascia, 2005). The general structure of boot camps is modeled after military basic training with strict scheduling, command from drill instructors, group discipline, little free time or privileges, and strenuous physical activity. Boot camps may be supplemented with academic and skills training programs (Garascia, 2005). Boot camps emerged in the early 1990s as an extension of adult correctional boot camps. While not as widespread now, as many as 50 juvenile boot camps operate in the United States (Weis & Toolis, 2009). Among the goals espoused for using boot camps as treatment are: reduce recidivism, reduce overcrowding, reduce costs, and rehabilitate youth (Weis & Toolis, 2009). Generally, recidivism rates from boot camp graduates are found to be similar to those who complete traditional residential correctional interventions. Boot camp programs may reduce overcrowding in detention centers and prisons since stays are shorter than traditional residential programs, allowing a quicker release into the community. While boot camps are less expensive than prisons or juvenile detention centers, they are more expensive than probation. If the offending juvenile is sentenced to boot camp instead of probation, then it is not cost effective. Weis, Crockett, and Vieth (2004) found that the average cost for boot camps per adolescent range from $6,241 to $14,021 depending on location, duration, and aftercare programs. In 1991, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) granted three organizations funds to create boot camps that had a military structure, used physical discipline, and provided aftercare services (Weis & Toolis, 2009). Boot camps evolved in three phases. The first generation of boot camps emphasized the military structure, extreme physical conditioning, and strict rules on the basis that shock and intimidation can correct disruptive behaviors. Juveniles were held  accountable for their crimes in hopes that it would deter them from future crime (Weis & Toolis, 2009). The second generation of boot camps focused on a balance between military structure and therapeutic programming such as schooling, job training, counseling, and daily living skills in order to increase self-control (Weis & Toolis, 2009). The third generation of boot camps placed less emphasis on military structure, following the belief that change occurs when the environment is one of respect and trust. Modeling and positive reinforcement were used as well as therapeutic and educational programming and intense aftercare programs (Weis & Toolis, 2009). Lastly, forced â€Å"treatment† has not worked. Even though youth given the diagnosis of conduct disorder are often criminalized, programs focusing on military-based, highly restrictive, coercive environments have failed to produce results to warrant their continued use. Rather than relying on these coercive tactics to â€Å"correct† these troubling behaviors, we must step back and reconsider the meaning and purpose of these behaviors- with close attention to the ecologies from which these youth emerge. If we focus equal resources at repairing (or preventing) the troubled worlds of these youth, compared to our investment in coercive, symptom-based strategies, we may likely achieve far greater results. References Garascia, J. A. (2005). The price we are willing to pay for punitive justice in the juvenile detention system: Mentally ill delinquents and their disproportionate share of the burden. Indiana Law Journal, 80, 489-515. Weis, R., Crockett, T. E., & Vieth, S. (2004). Using MMPI-A profiles to predict success in a military-style residential treatment program for adolescents with academic and conduct problems. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 563574. Weis, R., & Toolis, E. E. (2009). Evaluation of a voluntary military-style residential treatment program for youths with conduct problems: 6- and 36-month outcomes. Psychological Services, 6(2), 139-153.

Babylonian Mathematics Essay

1 Introduction Our first knowledge of mankind’s use of mathematics comes from the Egyptians and Babylonians. Both civilizations developed mathematics that was similar in scope but different in particulars. There can be no denying the fact that the totality of their mathematics was profoundly elementary2 , but their astronomy of later times did achieve a level comparable to the Greeks. Assyria 2 Basic Facts The Babylonian civilization has its roots dating to 4000BCE with the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. Yet little is known about the Sumerians. Sumer was first settled between 4500 and 4000 BC by a non-Semitic 1  °2002, c 2 Neugebauer, G. Donald Allen 1951 Babylonian Mathematics 2 people who did not speak the Sumerian language. These people now are called Ubaidians, for the village Al-Ubaid, where their remains were first uncovered. Even less is known about their mathematics. Of the little that is known, the Sumerians of the Mesopotamian valley built homes and temples and decorated them with artistic pottery and mosaics in geometric patterns. The Ubaidians were the first civilizing force in the region. They drained marshes for agriculture, developed trade and established industries including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery. The people called Sumerians, whose language prevailed in the territory, probably came from around Anatolia, probably arriving in Sumer about 3300 BC. For a brief chronological outline of Mesopotamia see http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/introduction/briefchonology.htm. See also  http://www.wsu.edu:8080/ËÅ"dee/MESO/TIMELINE.HTM for more detailed information. The early Sumerians did have writing for numbers as shown below. Owing to the scarcity of resources, the Sumerians adapted the ubiquitous clay in the region developing a writing that required the use of a stylus to carve into a soft clay tablet. It predated the 1 10 60 600 3,600 36,000 cuneiform (wedge) pattern of writing that the Sumerians had developed during the fourth millennium. It probably antedates the Egyptian hieroglyphic may have been the earliest form of written communication. The Babylonians, and other cultures including the Assyrians, and Hittites, inherited Sumerian law and literature and importantly their style of writing. Here we focus on the later period of the Mesopotamian civilization which engulfed the Sumerian civilization. The Mesopotamian civilizations are often called Babylonian, though this is not correct. Actually, Babylon3 was not the first great city, though the whole civilization is called Babylonian. Babylon, even during its existence, was not always 3 The first reference to the Babylon site of a temple occurs in about 2200 BCE. The name means â€Å"gate of God.† It became an independent city-state in 1894 BCE and Babylonia was the surrounding area. Its location is about 56 miles south of modern Baghdad. Babylonian Mathematics 3 the center of Mesopotamian culture. The region, at least that between the two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, is also called Chaldea. The dates of the Mesopotamian civilizations date from 2000-600 BCE. Somewhat earlier we see the unification of local principates by powerful leaders — not unlike that in China. One of the most powerful was Sargon the Great (ca. 2276-2221 BC). Under his rule the region was forged into an empire called the dynasty of Akkad and the Akkadian language began to replace Sumerian. Vast public works, such as irrigation canals and embankment fortifications, were completed about this time. These were needed because of the nature of the geography combined with the need to feed a large population. Because the Trigris and Euphrates would flood in heavy rains and the clay soil was not very absorptive, such constructions were necessary if a large civilization was to flourish. Later in about 2218 BCE tribesmen from the eastern hills, the Gutians, overthrew Akkadian rule giving rise to the 3rd Dynasty of Ur. They ruled much of Mesopotamia. However, this dynasty was soon to perish by the influx of Elamites from the north, which eventually destroyed the city of Ur in about 2000 BC. These tribes took command of all the ancient cities and mixed with the local people. No city gained overall control until Hammurabi of Babylon (reigned about 1792-1750 BCE) united the country for a few years toward the end of his reign. The Babylonian â€Å"texts† come to us in the form of clay tablets, usually about the size of a hand. They were inscribed in cuneiform, a wedge-shaped writing owing its appearance to the stylus that was used to make it. Two types of mathematical tablets are generally found, table-texts and problem texts. Table-texts are just that, tables of values for some purpose, such as multiplication tables, weights and measures tables, reciprocal tables, and the like. Many of the table texts are clearly â€Å"school texts†, written by apprentice scribes. The second class of tab lets are concerned with the solutions or methods of solution to algebraic or geometrical problems. Some tables contain up to two hundred problems, of gradual increasing difficulty. No doubt, the role of the teacher was significant. Babylon fell to Cyrus of Persia in 538 BC, but the city was spared. Babylonian Mathematics 4 The Darius inscription on cliff near Bisotun The great empire was finished. However, another period of Babylonian mathematical history occurred in about 300BCE, when the Seleucids, successors of Alexander the Great came into command. The 300 year period has furnished a great number of astronomical records which are remarkably mathematical — comparable to Ptolemy’s Almagest. Mathematical texts though are rare from this period. This points to the acuity and survival of the mathematical texts from the old-Babylonian period (about 1800 to 1600 BCE), and it is the old period we will focus on. The use of cuneiform script formed a strong bond. Laws, tax accounts, stories, school lessons, personal letters were impressed on soft clay tablets and then were baked in the hot sun or in ovens. From one region, the site of ancient Nippur, there have been recovered some 50,000 tablets. Many university libraries have large collections of cuneiform tablets. The largest collections from t he Nippur excavations, for example, are to be found at Philadelphia, Jena, and Istanbul. All total, at least 500,000 tablets have been recovered to date. Even still, it is estimated that the vast bulk of existing tablets is still buried in the ruins of ancient cities. Babylonian Mathematics 5 Deciphering cuneiform succeeded the Egyptian hieroglyphic. Indeed, just as for hieroglyphics, the key to deciphering was a trilingual inscription found by a British office, Henry Rawlinson (1810-1895), stationed as an advisor to the Shah. In 516 BCE Darius the Great, who reigned in 522-486 BCE, caused a lasting monument4 to his rule to be engraved in bas relief on a 100 Ãâ€" 150 foot surface on a rock cliff, the â€Å"Mountain of the Gods† at Behistun5 at the foot of the Zagros Mountains in the Kermanshah region of modern Iran along the road between modern Hamadan (Iran) and Baghdad, near the town of Bisotun. In antiquity, the name of the village was Bagastà ¢na, which means ‘place where the gods dwell’. Like the Rosetta stone, it was inscribed in  three languages — Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian (Babylonian). However, all three were then unknown. Only because Old Persian has only 43 signs and had been the subject of serious investigation since the beginning of the century was the deciphering possible. Progress was very slow. Rawlinson was able to correctly assign correct values to 246 characters, and moreover, he discovered that the same sign could stand for different consonantal sounds, depending on the vowel that followed. (polyphony) It has only been in the 20th century that substantial publications have appeared. Rawlinson published the completed translation and grammar in 1846-1851. He was eventually knighted and served in parliament (1858, 1865-68). For more details on this inscription, see the article by Jona Lendering at http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html. A translation is included. Babylonian Numbers 3 In mathematics, the Babylonians (Sumerians) were somewhat more advanced than the Egyptians. †¢ Their mathematical notation was positional but sexagesimal. to some sources, the actual events described in the monument took place between 522 and 520 BCE. 5 also spelled Bistoun  ¯  ¯ 4 According Babylonian Mathematics †¢ They used no zero. 6 †¢ More general fractions, though not all fractions, were admitted. †¢ They could extract square roots. †¢ They could solve linear systems. †¢ They worked with Pythagorean triples. †¢ They studied circular measurement. †¢ They solved cubic equations with the help of tables. †¢ Their geometry was sometimes incorrect. For enumeration the Babylonians used symbols for 1, 10, 60, 600, 3,600, 36,000, and 216,000, similar to the earlier period. Below are four of the symbols. They did arithmetic in base 60, sexagesimal. 1 10 60 600 Cuneiform numerals For our purposes we will use just the first two symbols ∠¨ = 1 ≠º = 10 All numbers will be formed from these. Example: Note the notation was positional and sexagesimal: ≠ºÃ¢â€° º ≠ºÃ¢â€° º= 20  · 60 + 20 ≠ºÃ¢â€° º ∠¨ ∠¨ ∠¨ = 57 ≠ºÃ¢â€° ºÃ¢â€° º ∠¨ ∠¨ ∠¨Ã¢Ë† ¨ ∠¨ ∠¨ ∠¨Ã¢Ë† ¨ ≠º ∠¨ = 2  · 602 + 2  · 60 + 21 = 7, 331 The story is a little more complicated. A few shortcuts or abbreviation were allowed, many originating in the Seleucid period. Other Babylonian Mathematics 7 devices for representing numbers were used. Below see how the number 19 was expressed. Three ways to express the number 19 = 19 Old Babylonian. The symbol means subtraction. = 19 Formal = 19 Cursive form Seleucid Period(c. 320 BC to c. 620 AD) The horizontal symbol above the â€Å"1† designated subtraction. There is no clear reason why the Babylonians selected the sexagesimal system6 . It was  possibly selected in the interest of metrology, this according to Theon of Alexandria, a commentator of the fourth century A.D.: i.e. the values 2,3,5,10,12,15,20, and 30 all divide 60. Remnants still exist today with time and angular measurement. However, a number of theories have been posited for the Babylonians choosing the base of 60. For example7 1. The number of days, 360, in a year gave rise to the subdivision of the circle into 360 degrees, and that the chord of one sixth of a circle is equal to the radius gave rise to a natural division of the circle into six equal parts. This in turn made 60 a natural unit of counting. (Moritz Cantor, 1880) 2. The Babylonians used a 12 hour clock, with 60 minute hours. That is, two of our minutes is one minute for the Babylonians. (Lehmann-Haupt, 1889) Moreover, the (Mesopotamian) zodiac was divided into twelve equal sectors of 30 degrees each. 3. The base 60 provided a convenient way to express fractions from a variety of systems as may be needed in conversion of weights and measures. In the Egyptian system, we have seen the values 1/1, 1/2, 2/3, 1, 2, . . . , 10. Combining we see the factor of 6 needed in the denominator of fractions. This with the base 10 gives 60 as the base of the new system. (Neugebauer, 1927) 4. The number 60 is the product of the number of planets (5 known at the time) by the number of months in the year, 12. (D. J. Boorstin, 6 Recall, 7 See the very early use of the sexagesimal system in China. There may well be a connection. Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers, Wiley, New York, 2000. Babylonian Mathematics 1986) 8 5. The combination of the duodecimal system (base 12) and the base 10 system leads naturally to a base 60 system. Moreover, duodecimal systems have their remnants even today where we count some commodities such as eggs by the dozen. The English system of fluid measurement has numerous base twelve values. As we see in the charts below, the base twelve (base 3, 6?) and base two graduations are mixed. Similar values exist in the ancient Roman,  Sumerian, and Assyrian measurements. teaspoon tablespoon 1 teaspoon = 1 tablespoon = 1 fluid ounce = 1 gill = 1 cup = 1 pint = 1 quart = 1 gallon = 1 firkin = 1 hogshead = 1 3 6 24 48 96 192 768 6912 48384 inch 1 inch = 1 foot = 1 yard = 1 mile = 1 12 36 — fluid ounce 1/6 1/2 1 4 8 16 32 128 1152 8064 1/3 1 2 8 16 32 64 256 2304 16128 foot 1/12 1 3 5280 yard 1/36 1/3 1 1760 Note that missing in the first column of the liquid/dry measurement table is the important cooking measure 1/4 cup, which equals 12 teaspoons. 6. The explanations above have the common factor of attempting to give a plausibility argument based on some particular aspect of their society. Having witnessed various systems evolve in modern times, we are tempted to conjecture that a certain arbitrariness may be at work. To create or impose a number system and make it apply to an entire civilization must have been the work of a political system of great power and centralization. (We need only consider the failed American attempt to go metric beginning in 1971. See, http://lamar.colostate.edu/ hillger/dates.htm) The decision to adapt Babylonian Mathematics 9 the base may have been may been made by a ruler with little more than the advice merchants or generals with some vested need. Alternatively, with the consolidation of power in Sumeria, there may have been competing systems of measurement. Perhaps, the base 60 was chosen as a compromise. Because of the large base, multiplication was carried out with the aide of a table. Yet, there is no table of such a magnitude. Instead there are tables up to 20 and then selected values greater (i.e. 30, 40, and 50). The practitioner would be expected to decompose the number into a sum of smaller numbers and use multiplicative distributivity. A positional fault Which is it? ≠º ≠º = 10  · 60 + 10 = 10  · 602 + 10 = 3, 610 10 = 10 + 60 = 20() 1. There is no â€Å"gap†Ã‚  designator. 2. There is a true floating point — its location is undetermined except from context. ? The â€Å"gap† problem was overcome in the Seleucid period with the invention of a â€Å"zero† as a gap separator. We use the notation: d1 ; d2 , d3 , . . . = d1 + d2 d3 + 2 +  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 60 60 The values d1 ; d2 , d3 , d4 , . . . are all integers. Example ∠¨ ≠º ∠¨Ã¢Ë† ¨ ≠ºÃ¢â€° º ≠º ∠¨ ≠º ≠º ∠¨Ã¢Ë† ¨ ≠ºÃ¢â€° º 1; 24, 51, 10 = 1 + 24 51 10 + 2+ 3 60 60 60 = 1.41421296 Babylonian Mathematics 10 This number was found on the Old Babylonian Tablet (Yale Collection √ #7289) and is a very high precision estimate of 2. We will continue this discussion shortly, conjecturing on how such precision may have been obtained. The exact value of √ 2, to 8 decimal places is = 1.41421356. Fractions. Generally the only fractions permitted were such as 2 3 5 12 , , , , †¦ 60 60 60 60 because the sexagesimal expression was known. For example, 1 10 = = ;≠º 6 60 1 ∠¨ ∠¨ ∠¨ ≠ºÃ¢â€° º =; , 9 ∠¨ ∠¨ ∠¨ ≠ºÃ¢â€° º 1 Irregular fractions such as 1 , 11 , etc were not normally not used. 7 There are some tablets that remark, â€Å"7 does not divide†, or â€Å"11 does not divide†, etc. A table of all products equal to sixty has been found. 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12 15 30 20 15 12 10 7,30 6,40 6 5 4 16 18 20 24 25 27 30 32 36 40 3, 45 3,20 3 2,30 2,25 2,13,20 2 1;52,30 1,40 1,30 Babylonian Mathematics You can see, for example that 8 Ãâ€" 7; 30 = 8 Ãâ€" (7 + 30 ) = 60 60 11 Note that we did not use the separatrix â€Å";† here. This is because the table is also used for reciprocals. Thus 7 30 1 = 0; 7, 30 = + 2 8 60 60 Contextual interpretation was critical. Remark. The corresponding table for our decimal system is shown below. Included also are the columns with 1 and the base 10. The product relation and the decimal expansion relations are valid in base 10. 1 2 5 10 10 5 2 1 Two tablets found in 1854 at Senkerah on the Euphrates date from 2000 B.C. They give squares of the numbers up to 59 and cubes up to 32. The Babylonians used the formula xy = ((x + y)2 − (x − y)2 )/4 to assist in multiplication. Division relied on multiplication, i.e. 1 x =x · y y There apparently was no long division. The Babylonians knew some approximations of irregular fractions. 1 =; 1, 1, 1 59 1 =; 0, 59, 0, 59 61 However, they do not appear to have noticed infinite periodic expansions.8 the decimal system, the analogous values are 1 = 0.1111 . . . and 9 Note the use of the units â€Å"0† here but not for the sexagesimal. Why? 8 In 1 11 = 0.090909 . . .. Babylonian Mathematics 12 They also seemed to have an elementary knowledge of logarithms. That is to say there are texts which concern the determination of the exponents of given numbers. 4 Babylonian Algebra In Greek mathematics there is a clear distinction between the geometric and algebraic. Overwhelmingly, the Greeks assumed a geometric position wherever possible. Only in the later work of Diophantus do we see algebraic methods of significance. On the other hand, the Babylonians assumed just as definitely, an algebraic viewpoint. They allowed operations that were forbidden in Greek mathematics and even later until the 16th century of our own era. For example, they would freely multiply areas and lengths, demonstrating that the units were of less importance. Their methods of designating unknowns, however, does invoke units. First, mathematical expression was strictly rhetorical, symbolism would not come for another two millenia with Diophantus, and then not significantly until Vieta in the 16th century. For example, the designation of the unknown was length. The designation of the square of the unknown was area. In solving linear systems of two dimensions, the unknowns were length and breadth, and length, breadth, and width for three dimensions. √ Square Roots. Recall the approximation of 2. How did they get it? There are two possibilities: (1) Applying the method of the mean. (2) Applying the approximation √ b a2  ± b ≈ a  ± 2a Babylonian Mathematics 13 Yale Babylonian Collection 1;24,51,10 30 42;25,35 Square with side 30 The product of 30 by 1;24,51,10 is precisely 42;25,35. Method of the mean. The method of the mean can easily be used to find the square root of any number. The idea is simple: to find the square root of 2, say, select x as a first approximation and take for another 2/x. The product of the two numbers is of course 2, and moreover, one must be less than and the other greater  than 2. Take the √ arithmetic average to get a value closer to 2. Precisely, we have 1. Take a = a1 as an initial approximation. √ √ 2. Idea: If a1 < 2 then a21 > 2. Babylonian Mathematics 3. So take a2 = (a1 + 4. Repeat the process. Example. Take a1 = 1. Then we have 2 3 a2 = (1 + )/2 = 1 2 2 17 3 )/2 = 1.41666†¦ = a3 = ( + 2 3/2 12 17 2 577 a4 = ( + )/2 = 12 17/12 408 14 2 )/2. a1 Now carry out this process in sexagesimal, beginning with a1 = 1; 25 using Babylonian arithmetic without rounding, to get the value 1;24,51,10. √ à º Note: 2=1; 25 = 1.4166†¦ was commonly used as a brief, rough and ready, approximation. When using sexagesimal numbering, a lot of information can be compressed into one place. Solving Quadratics. The Babylonian method for solving quadratics is essentially based on completing the square. The method(s) are not as â€Å"clean† as the modern quadratic formula, because the Babylonians allowed only positive solutions. Thus equations always were set in a form for which there was a positive solution. Negative solutions (indeed negative numbers) would not be allowed until the 16th century CE. The rhetorical method of writing a problem does not require variables. As such problems have a rather intuitive feel. Anyone could understand the problem, but without the proper tools, the solution would be impossibly difficult. No doubt this rendered a sense of the mystic to the mathematician. Consider this example I added twice the side to the square; the result is 2,51,60. What is the side? In modern terms we have the simple quadratic x2 + 2x = 10300. The student would then follow his â€Å"template† for quadratics. This template was the solution of a specific problem of the correct mathematical Babylonian Mathematics 15 type, all written rhetorically. Here is a typical example given in terms of modern variables. Problem. Solve x(x + p) = q. Solution. Set y = x + p Then we have the system xy = q y−x = p This gives 4xy + (y − x)2 = p2 + 4q (y + x)2 = p2 + 4q x+y = 2x + p = q q p2 + 4q p2 + 4q √ −p + p2 + 4q x = 2 All three forms x2 + px = q x2 = px + q x2 + q = px are solved similarly. The third is solved by equating it to the nonlinear system, x + y = p, xy = q. The student’s task would be to take the problem at hand and determine which of the forms was appropriate and then to solve it by a prescribed method. What we do not know is if the student was ever instructed in principles of solution, in this case completing the square. Or was mathematical training essentially static, with solution methods available for each and every problem that the practitioner would encounter. It is striking that these methods date back 4,000 years! Solving Cubics. The Babylonians even managed to solve cubic equations, though again only those having positive solutions. However, the form of the equation was restricted tightly. For example, solving x3 = a Babylonian Mathematics was accomplished using tables and interpolation. Mixed cubics x3 + x2 = a were also solved using tables and interpolation. The general cubic ax3 + bx2 + cx = d can be reduced to the normal form y 3 + ey 2 = g 16 To do this one needs to solve a quadratic, which the Babylonians could do. But did the Babylonians know this reduction? The Babylonians must have had extraordinary manipulative skills and as well a maturity and flexibility of algebraic skills. Solving linear systems. The solution of linear systems  were solved in a particularly clever way, reducing a problem of two variables to one variable in a sort of elimination process, vaguely reminiscent of Gaussian elimination. Solve 2 1 x − y = 500 3 2 x + y = 1800 Solution. Select x = y such that ËÅ" ËÅ" x + y = 2ËÅ" = 1800 ËÅ" ËÅ" x So, x = 900. Now make the model ËÅ" x=x+d ËÅ" We get y =y−d ËÅ" 1 2 (900 + d) − (900 − d) = 500 3 2 2 1 ( + )d + 1800/3 − 900/2 = 500 3 2 7 d = 500 − 150 6 6(350) d = 7 So, d = 300 and thus x = 1200 y = 600. Babylonian Mathematics 17 Plimpton 322 tablet Yale Babylonian collection Pythagorean Triples. 5 As we have seen there is solid evidence that the ancient Chinese were aware of the Pythagorean theorem, even though they may not have had anything near to a proof. The Babylonians, too, had such an awareness. Indeed, the evidence here is very much stronger, for an entire tablet of Pythagoreantriples has been discovered. The events surrounding them reads much like a modern detective story, with the sleuth being archaeologist Otto Neugebauer. We begin in about 1945 with the Plimpton 322 tablet, which is now the Babylonian collection at Yale University, and dates from about 1700 BCE. It appears to have the left section Babylonian Mathematics 18 broken away. Indeed, the presence of glue on the broken edge indicates that it was broken after excavation. What the tablet contains is fifteen rows of numbers, numbered from 1 to 15. Below we list a few of them in decimal form. The first column is descending numerically. The deciphering of what they mean is due mainly to Otto Neugebauer in about 1945. 1.9834†¦ 1.94915 . . . 1.38716 119 169 3367 4825 56 1 2 106 15 Interpreting Plimpton 322. To see what it means, we need a model right triangle. Write the Pythagorean triples, the edge b in the column thought to be severed from the tablet. Note that they are listed c B a b decreasing cosecant. b (c/b)2 120 (169/120)2 3456 (4825/3456)2 . . . 90 (106/90)2 Right Triangle a c 119 169 3367 4825 56 106 1 2 15 c csc2 B = ( )2 b A curious fact is that the tablet contains a few errors, no doubt transcription errors made so many centuries ago. How did the Babylonian mathematicians determine these triples? Why were they listed in this order? Assuming they knew the Pythagorean relation a2 + b2 = c2 , divide by b to get c a ( )2 + 1 = ( )2 b b Babylonian Mathematics u2 + 1 = v 2 (u − v)(u + v) = 1 Choose u + v and find u − v in the table of reciprocals. 19 Example. Take u + v=2;15. Then u − v = 0; 26, 60 Solve for u and v to get u = 0; 54, 10 v = 1; 20, 50. Multiply by an appropriate integer to clear the fraction. We get a = 65, c = 97. So b = 72. This is line 5 of the table. It is tempting to think that there must have been known general principles,  nothing short of a theory, but all that has been discovered are tablets of specific numbers and worked problems. 6 Babylonian Geometry Circular Measurement. We find that the Babylonians used Ï€ = 3 for practical computation. But, in 1936 at Susa (captured by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE), a number of tablets with significant geometric results were unearthed. One tablet compares the areas and the squares Babylonian Mathematics 20 of the sides of the regular polygons of three to seven sides. For example, there is the approximation perimeter hexagon = 0; 57, 36 circumference circumscribed circle This gives an effective Ï€ ≈ 3 1 . (Not bad.) 8 Volumes. There are two forms for the volume of a frustum given Frustum b b h a a V V a+b 2 )h ÃÆ'2 ! a+b 2 1 a−b 2 = h ( ) − ( ) 2 3 2 = ( The second is correct, the first is not. There are many geometric problems in the cuneiform texts. For example, the Babylonians were aware that †¢ The altitude of an isosceles triangle bisects the base. †¢ An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. (Thales) 7 Summary of Babylonian Mathematics That Babylonian mathematics may seem to be further advanced than that of Egypt may be due to the evidence available. So, even though Babylonian Mathematics 21 we see the development as being more general and somewhat broader in scope, there remain many similarities. For example, problems contain only specific cases. There seem to be no general formulations. The lack of notation is clearly detrimental in the handling of algebraic problems. There is an absence of clear cut distinctions between exact and approximate results. Geometric considerations play a very secondary role in Babylonian algebra, even though geometric terminology may be used. Areas and lengths are freely added, something that would not be possible in Greek mathematics. Overall, the role of geometry is diminished in comparison with algebraic and numerical methods. Questions about solvability or insolvability are absent. The concept of â€Å"proof† is unclear and uncertain. Overall, there is no sense of abstraction. In sum, Babylonian mathematics, like that of the Egyptians, is mostly utilitarian — but apparently more advanced. Exercises 1. Express the numbers 7 6, 234, 1265, and 87,432 in sexagesimal. 2. Compute the products (a) 1, 23 Ãâ€" 2, 9 (b) 2, 4, 23 Ãâ€" 3, 34 8 3. A problem on one Babylonian tablets give the base and top of an isosceles trapezoid to be 50 and 40 respectively and the side length to be 30. Find the altitude and area. Can this be done without the Pythagorean theorem? 4. Solve the following system ala the Babylonian â€Å"false position†  ´ method. State clearly what steps you are taking. 2x + 3y = 1600 5x + 4y = 2600 (The solution is (200, 400).) Babylonian Mathematics 22 5. Generalize this Babylonian algorithm for solving linear systems to arbitrary linear systems in two variables? 6. Generalize this Babylonian algorithm for solving linear systems to arbitrary linear systems? √ 7. Modify the Babylonian root finding method (for 2) to find√ the square root of any number. Use your method to approximate 3. Begin with x0 = 1. √ 8. Explain how to adapt the method of the mean to determine 3 2. n n3 + n2 1 2 2 12 9. Consider the table: 3 36 Solve the following prob4 80 150 5 6 252 lems using this table and linear interpolation. Compare with the exact values. (You can obtain the exact solutions, for example, by using Maple: evalf(solve(x3 + x2 = a, x)); Here a=the right side) (a) x3 + x2 = 55 (b) x3 + x2 = 257 10. Show that the general cubic ax3 + bx2 + cx = d can be reduced to the normal form y 3 + ey 2 = g. 11. Show how the perimeter identity is used to derive the approximation for Ï€. 12. Write a lesson plan wherein you show students how to factor quadratics ala the Babylonian methods. You may use variables,  ´ but not general formulas.

Argon Cluster and Graphene Collision Simulation Experiment

Argon Cluster and Graphene Collision Simulation Experiment Formation of Nanopore in a Suspended Graphene Sheet with Argon Cluster Bombardment: A Molecular Dynamics Simulation study Abstract: Formation of a nanopore in a suspended graphene sheet using an argon gas beam was simulated using molecular dynamics (MD) method. The Lennard-Jones (LJ) two-body potential and Tersoff–Brenner empirical potential energy function are applied in the MD simulations for different interactions between particles. The simulation results demonstrated that the incident energy and cluster size played a crucial role in the collisions. Simulation results for the Ar55 –graphene collisions show that the Ar55 cluster bounces back when the incident energy is less than 11ev/atom, the argon cluster penetrates when the incident energy is greater than 14 ev/atom. The two threshold incident energies, i.e. threshold incident energy of defect formation in graphene and threshold energy of penetration argon cluster were observed in the simulation. The threshold ene rgies were found to have relatively weak negative power law dependence on the cluster size. The number of sputtered carbon atoms is obtained as a function of the kinetic energy of the cluster. Keywords: Nanopore, Suspended graphene sheet, Argon cluster, Molecular dynamics simulation Introduction The carbon atoms in graphene condense in a honeycomb lattice due to sp 2-hybridized carbon bond in two dimensions [1]. It has unique mechanical [2], thermal [3-4], electronic [5], optical [6], and transport properties [7], which leads to its huge potential applications in nanoelectronic and energy science [8]. One of the key obstacles of pristine graphene in nanoelectronics is the absence of band gap [9-10]. Theoretical studies have shown that chemical doping of graphene with foreign atoms can modulate the electronic band structure of graphene and lead to the metal to semiconductor transition and break the polarized transport degeneracy [11-12]. Also, computational studies have demonstr ated that some vacancies of carbon atoms within the graphene plane could induce a band-gap opening and Fermi level shifting [13-14]. Graphene nanopores can have potential applications in various technologies, such as DNA sequencing, gas separation, and single-molecule analysis [15-16]. Generating sub-nanometer pores with precisely-controlled sizes is the key difficulty in the design of a graphene nanopore device. Several method have been employed to punch nanopores in graphene sheets, including electron beam from a transmission electron microscope (TEM) and heavy ion irradiation. Using electron beam technique, Fischbein et al.[17] drilled nanopores with the width of several nanometers and demonstrated that porous graphene is very stable; but, this method cannot be widely used because of its low efficiency and high cost. Russo et al. [18] used energetic ion exposure technique to create nanopores with radius as small as 3Å. S. Zhao et al. [19] indicated that energetic cluster irra diation was more effective in generating nanopores in graphene, because their much larger kinetic energy could be transferred to the target atoms. Recent experimental works have further confirmed that cluster irradiation is a feasible and promising way in the generation of nanopores [20]. Numerical simulations have demonstrated that, by choosing a suitable cluster species and controlling its energy, a nanopores of desired sizes and qualities can be fabricated in a graphene sheet [19].

Process laboratories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Process laboratories - Essay Example According to Humphrey (2008), the distillation process consumes much energy that may be very costly. There is, therefore, need to understand the types of columns that should be put in place as well as the factors that affect the distillation column operation. The equilibrium of the vapor that is in liquid form should also be determined to ensure that no vapor escapes from these chambers. Classification of distillation columns mainly depends on the composition of the mixture, the temperatures involved and the flow of the vapor in each chamber. These are the main variables that are used to describe the types of columns used during the distillation. During this process, the fractions of the mixtures are removed through boiling and condensation. These distillation columns are fed with these mixtures in a different manner and the sources used also differ. For instance if the feed is from a source at a pressure higher than the distillation column pressure, it is only piped into the column. Otherwise, the feed is pumped or compressed into the column. The feed may be a superheated vapor, a saturated vapor or liquid and in a case where the feed is a liquid at a much higher pressure than the column pressure, the valves will inflate and undergo a partial vaporization resulting in a liquid-vapor mixture as it enters the distillation column (Humphrey, 2008). Humphrey (2008) describes Rigorous modelling as the process by which chemical reactors are successfully separated to ensure that the end products are free from impurities. Rigorous modelling ensures that uniformity is maintained so at to come up with accurate results and that the end products can be used. Rigorous modelling facilitates the Distillation process by ensuring that all mixtures are successfully separated and it ensures that there are no disruptions during the distillation process. Humphrey (2008) outlines that distillation columns are very dynamic and this may

Using a country of your choice as an example demonstrate how the Essay

Using a country of your choice as an example demonstrate how the government seeks to compensate for market failures.(Japan) - Essay Example Externality effects would gradually become global as globally integrated markets develop. As externalities become huge they pose challenge to achieving macroeconomic stability which in turn challenges the international political architecture. ‘Efficient’ allocation of resources according to economists implies that all possible mutually beneficial trades have been exhausted (Holtom, 2011). This means that proper coordination between willing buyers and sellers has been accomplished. The nature and extent of market failure determines the role that government would play and whether government intervention is at all necessary. Markets rarely correspond to the ideals of a perfectly competitive market as defined by the economic theory (Rama and Harvey). These imperfectly competitive markets may have efficiently allocated resources to derive the best value. Certain conditions termed as ‘market failures’ render government intervention necessary. While failure to syst ematically allocate resources is evidence of inefficient allocation of resources but this is not sufficient reason to justify government intervention. Government intervention in markets can be costly and the benefits must far outweigh the costs if government were to intervene. However, some governments believe that the role of government is benevolent during such externalities (Dolfsma, 2011). In fact institutional economics believe that market cannot function unless they are embedded in a broader set of interrelated institutions. However, government interventions can reduce efficiency through unintended consequences such as distortionary taxes, special interests or maybe just simple errors of judgment (Holtom, 2011). All market failures do not warrant policy action and hence the cost-benefit analysis is essential. A market-oriented economy may produce income inequalities. A person may produce some very efficient product which benefits the society but there is no gain for the poorer people of the society. Moreover it is not possible to exclude non-payers from utilizing a ‘public good’. However, market failures occur when an inefficiently high or low amount of good in question is produced and is directed to markets where they do not receive the desired value (Holtom, 2011). This reduces in value the perfect market conditions. This can be applied to the entertainment and the theme park industry in Japan. Japan is known for the largest global growth for theme parks and the amusement industry. Tokyo Disneyland (TDL) demonstrated solid performance and made a substantial impact on the host economy (Kawamura and Hara, 2010). Being part of the tourism industry they brought in extensive cash flow from the non-resident tourist. However, the rush of theme parks in Japan overlapped with the bubble economy in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Local governments in Japan suffered as an effect of deindustrialization following the bubble economy. Market failures in the theme park industry led to government intervention in several ways but these were found to be counter productive. To revitalize the local economy the development of theme parks was considered essential. Resources were inefficiently allocated to make the theme parks sustainable and help the local economies. Abundance of construction loans were given for theme parks. In addition, the central governments paid subsidies to the local governments and the

Domestic Terrorism Final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Domestic Terrorism Final - Essay Example In addition, ethnic refugees such as Cuban and Puerto Rican, support local movements that support independence or regime change. One of the main attractions for foreign terrorists in the US is the ability to raise money. While this somewhat distorts the technical definition of 'domestic terrorist', it does indicate the level of cooperation, even when the goals are self-serving. According to Ehrenfeld and Lappen (2007), "A major funding source for terrorist and criminals is the trade in illegal drugs". It has been well publicized that "Islamic extremist organizations, primarily Hizballah, and, to a lesser extent, the Sunni extremist" groups have been cooperating with international terrorists in South America, such as FARC, to raise funds through the drug trade (Hudson, 2003, p.14). These drugs are then marketed through US groups, and according to John Sullivan of the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department, "organized crime groups in Los Angeles County are supporting international terrorists" (qtd. in Ehrenfeld and Lappen, 2007). 2.) The Internet has become a powerful tool because of its capability to communicate around the globe instantaneously. As with all other technology, it is not the technology that creates the problem. It is the user. Freedom of speech and the right to privacy hold conflicting roles when we examine private communication that incites violence. The public display of speech or information that incites or advocates violence or illegal activity is already illegal in the US (Finkleman, 2006, p.178). A web site that calls for the destruction of property or lives should be taken down by law enforcement and the perpetrators pursued. However, private communication should be considered as a separate issue. E-mails and private messages that travel across the Internet should be treated no differently than printed material. The US has a long tradition of constitutional guaranteed freedoms that included freedom of speech. Most intelligent people also understand that with this freedom comes a responsibility. We are not free to say anything, anywhere. However, private conversations are given extreme consideration, and electronic correspondence should be considered private conversation. I would object to the government intrusion. Though I have nothing to hide, there is the potential for government officials to use their authority to pursue or oppress their political opponents. There is the fear that the label 'terrorist' could be applied to well intentioned social movements, or people who plan to engage in the time honored protest of civil disobedience. Removing freedom of speech from private conversations is a step down a slippery slope that should not be taken. 3.) By definition, 'domestic terrorism' must involve a criminal act. According to the US criminal code Title 18, Part I, Chapter 113B, 2331 (5A), the activity must "involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State" (US Code Collection, n.d.). However, there is a significant difference between disturbing the peace by blocking the entrance to an abortion clinic and the burning of a business, such as the vandalism that did over $1 million damage to the U.S. Forestry Science Laboratory in Rhinelander, Wisconsin that was blamed on the Environmental Liberation Front (ELF) (Terrorism 2000/2001, 2004). The difference is

Contract Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 5

Contract Law - Essay Example The aggrieved party is also entitled to sue for damages. 1 A warranty on the other hand is a secondary term of a contract. It does not go to the root of the contract. Breach of a warranty gives the aggrieved party a right to action for damages. However, unlike an audition, breach of a warranty does not give the defendant a right to repudiate the contract and he can not therefore reject the goods supplied. Whether a term of a contract is a condition or warranty is a question to be determined by the courts. On the other hand, there exists exemption clause in a contract whose primary aim is to limit the liability of the seller of goods to which he could otherwise have been liable. But before the party has to place reliance/defence on an exemption clause, the courts must determine two things. In this case walls (w) inspected a car and agreed to buy if from Karosale (k). A clause "no condition or warranty that the vehicle is roadworthy or so to its age, condition or fitness for any purpose is given by the ownership implied herein" was incorporated in their agreement. After the car was delivered to w, it was incapable of self starting and he refused to take it. K sued him on the basis of the clause. It was held that there was a breach of condition and the defendants were not entitled to rely on the exemption clause 2 The case My advice to Keith regarding the exemption clause It is not true that Paul had incorporated the clause to the contract because the clause was written at the back of the receipt and not the front. The fact that Keith did not bother to read it cannot be used by Paul as a justification to rely on the exemption clause. It therefore means that the exemption clause WAS NOT brought to the attention of Keith. A similar judgement was passed in the case of CHAPELTON VBABBY U.D.C 1940. In this case, C hired a deck chair from the defendant and paid four pence of which he obtained a ticket. He put the ticket into his pocket without reading what was on it. On the back of the ticket was a printed message that the defendant will not be liable for any accident or damage arising from the use of chairs. But while sitting on the chair it collapsed and he suffered injuries. C sued the defendants HELD- the printed clause on the back of the receipt could not become part of the contract as the defendants did not take reasonable care to bring the clause to the attention of the plaintiff. C was entitled to damages. 3 Relating the above case to the case between Keith and Paul Keith has suffered massive loss on the use of the washing machine. The clause was not brought to his attention as it was written at the back of the receipt. If this was written at the front of the receipt, then maybe Keith could have identified it and could have

Pverty, money and love Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pverty, money and love - Essay Example This affects the way we can have the desire to be meaningful in someone’s life. An organization called Kiva embraces the methodology of helping entrepreneurs with loans so that they can start their own business and give returns as their business makes profits.   From Kiva, many small businesses have succeeded, which improves the state of being of a person’s life. Kiva today collects about 150 million dollars spreading over 200 countries. Many small businesses in the United States and in the World need money to grow or do what they need to do, or they need money on a hard month.   There is always a need for resources. These resources do not come from where we expect such as banks, venture resources and other organizations in support structures. They come from friends and family.  Findings  come from friends and family amount to 130 billion dollars a year. There is a big revelation today in poor communities in the world. Unlike sending a donation where a person receives money for free, we have small entrepreneurs who get a loan and start their own businesses. Then later give returns where their businesses have succeeded. The thought of this is not only inspirational, but it displays respect and hope that the world will change especially when we know and care about poor

Managing Decision Making Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Decision Making - Assignment Example    Literature Review & Summary of Research Findings- Simon's Model of Decision According to classical decision making theory, individuals need to gather information regarding the emergent issue, then search for plausible alternativeness which can be used in order to address the issue and then select the most optimal alternatives (Bechara and Damasio, 2005). But, Simon (1979) criticized the classical decision making approach by stating that model doesn’t correspond with real world decision dilemmas. One needs to understand the key steps in Simon’s decision making model in order to criticize or appreciate it in context to research works of different research scholars. Bechara and Damasio (2005) stated that there are three phases in Simon’s decision making model such as, 1- intelligence phase, 2- design phase and 3- choice. Intelligence Phase- in the intelligence phase, individuals formulate the problem or decision statement by comparing the current process status with historical data or reference points. In this phase, individuals gather information from external environment without knowing exact outcome of such information crunching. Design Phase- in this phase, individuals try to formulate the probable alternatives to address the decision statement by considering the gathered information from macro environment. Decision makers need to analyze the information collected from external environment in order to generate alternative approach to the problem statement. Choice- in this phase, individuals select the most feasible alternative in order to address the decision problem or take decision. Important thing to remember that, the most potential alternative to the decision problem might not be the most feasible one hence decision makers must take care while selecting potential choice. There is no doubt that Simon’s decision model is based on the concept of bounded rationality. Simon (1979) pointed out that rational decision making becom es difficult due to various reasons such as lack of knowledge about all the alternatives, uncertain events, inability to calculate consequences, lack of knowledge about the consequence of particular decision, human behavioural limits etc. Due to such shortcomings, rationality of any decision making is subjected to be bounded hence a decision cannot be optimized. Sent (2005) supported the bounded rationality model of Simon and stated that although rationality might be the goal for decision making but ability of the decision maker is limited due to cognitive (such as personal values, lack of computational ability, reflexes and lack of knowledge) as well as exogenous factors (uncertainty regarding the outcome of decision). DellaVigna (2009) stated that the concept of bounded rationality is very much pertinent in context to modern day business problems while Bromiley (2005) appreciated decision making model of Simon for its usability in investment decision making and behavioral economic s. However, there are other group of research scholars such as Campitelli and Gobet (2010) and Levinthal (2011) who criticized Simon’s decision making model for lacking in depth. Levinthal (2011) stated that decision makers need to create representation in explicit or implicit manner while making deductive reason

Freedom of Information Act 2000 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Freedom of Information Act 2000 - Essay Example A campaign that finally resulted in the birth of the Freedom of Information Act 2000 on January 1, 2005. Notwithstanding these significant success chucked, a few years down the line the Act has generated mixed feelings and also generated unprecedented controversies. It is against this background that the central focus of this essay will be to conduct an exhaustive analysis of the most contending issues in the Freedom of Information Act 2000. Some observers are of the opinion that the innumerable exemptions in the Act have rendered it so feeble that it barely serves the purpose for which it was enacted. Whilst on the other hand, another school of thought holds a completely contrasting view of the Act as being an instrument that is lavishly granting arbitrary intrusive powers that are by themselves self-destructive; they primarily threaten social cohesion. The government of the United Kingdom enacted and implemented the Freedom of Information Act 2000 through her parliament to create the platform for individuals, institutions and organizations to be bestowed with the right to demand relevant information from public institutions. It should be noted that the enactment of the Act is fundamentally a fulfillment of the Labor Party's election campaign promise during the 1997 general elections. Basically, the F Basically, the Freedom of Information Act is part of the general legal system that already has a number of legislations that boarder on the rights of information. They include among others the Common Law of Confidentiality, the European Convention on Human Rights and the Data Protection Act 1998. Essentially, the legislation as implemented in the United Kingdom1 seeks to serve citizens within the broader framework of both the parliament of Scotland and the parliament of the United Kingdom. In Scotland it is called the "Scottish Act 2002" whilst the name remains unchanged in the United Kingdom. It became imperative to structure the Act to be in consonance with the juridical and public regulatory system in Scotland as means of ensuring the workability of the Act across geopolitical areas; in Scotland for instance, the parliament has an enormous control of the majority of public institutions making it thus prudent to make realistic adjustments to accommodate this difference, hence a second legislation dubbed the "Act of the Scottish Parliament" was enacted to bridge this gap. It is in many ways very similar to the main Act (The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002). Meanwhile the Freedom of Information Act is limited in its application to institutions and bodies that are out of the legal and geographical jurisdiction of the United Kingdom; they include territories abroad as well as crown dependencies. Taking cognizance of the sensitive nature of the Act the government was convinced that the most prudent to manage the process is to adopt a gradualist approach to guide the implementation process. Consequently, the Act was implemented in phases culminating into the tentative Act that guaranteed access to public information been eventually enforced on January 1, 2005. A look at the Act shows well over 100, 000 public institutions that have being listed as being eligible to release information to any individual, public interest organisation or institution (see Brooke, 2005 for detailed

Electronic commerce Essay Example for Free

Electronic commerce Essay TroniXkart is component amp; development tools sourcing division of Hogst Innovative Solutions Pvt. Ltd. With its international tie up with global companies like Sparkfun, Seeedstudio etc, items with international standards is being sold in TroniXkart. Also local items, with Indian standards suitable for Indian work environment is sold after careful testing and benchmarking the reliability. We focus and help the creative minds to come up with an innovative idea, for the completion of their dream projects. Beat it robotics, wireless sensors, digital storage devices, anything can be bought through the site. It has got so many features which gives an edge over upon the competitors. The reviews of products by past customer play an important role in selecting the right equipment. TroniXkart updates the reviews, new arrivals, competitive products reviews, which help the customers to grab the product without making much ambiguity. Another feature of TroniXkart is the shipping amp; returns policy, which makes it available the right products ordered at the right time and at the right place. Bangalore based office unit and warehouse takes care of the delivery and after sale service of TroniXkart. Another attractive feature of TroniXkart is the gift coupons given to the loyal customers. This makes sure that the customers are served properly even after the post purchase stage. Gift coupons provide the chance of getting the products less than the market price without letting down the quality. Its categorised display of products helps to get to know about recent developments in the electronic area. So in this fast moving e-commerce era, where you can order cakes, flowers and even dresses, shoes, TroniXkart provides the electronic components which globally accepted.

Overview of the Consequences of Cognitive Neuropsychology

Overview of the Consequences of Cognitive Neuropsychology The ability to study and understand the brain has evolved dramatically since people were first interested in the brains seemingly miraculous capacities. However, comprehending the input/output nature of the brain (and everything in between) has always been limited to behavioral tasks of healthy individuals. Unfortunately for science, a machine that cant be reverse engineered cannot be fully understood. To truly make sense of the diverse functions of each part of the brain, it is necessary to see the importance of studying individuals with brain damage. The field of cognitive neuropsychology occupies itself precisely with this concept. More or less, it offers the analogy of the brain as a sort of appliance, perhaps a television with lots of wires plugged into it. Assuming that none of the cables functions are labeled (as is obviously the case with the brain), the best way to discover which cable controls each part of the television is to unplug each cable one at a time and observe which parts of the television stop functioning. This analogy works well, given that a lesion in the brain is small enough to only effect a certain function. More diffuse brain damage is like more cables being removed at once; it becomes more difficult to declare, with precision, which cable controls which function. As non-invasive methods of imaging the brain have improved over the decades, it is no longer necessary to limit studies to healthy individuals, non-human animals, and less precise guessing as to the localization and diffusion of brain damage in patients. Techniques like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allow researchers to pinpoint where brain damage exists in patients, and, from further behavioral experiments, determine how the damage has affected the brain and, moreover, for which behavioral aspects the damaged part of the brain used to be responsible. Additionally, another technique, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), allows researchers to simulate a momentary lesion on superficial portions of the cortex. Clearly finding a patient with brain damage for every part single part of the brain is a scientific pipedream. Thus, by following the previous analogy, TMS offers the possibility to remove a cable and witness the effects without causing any permanent damage to the brain. This paper will show three cases of brain damage studies from the past, before such technology was available, and three from the present to contrast the difference in techniques and what the studies contributed to the field of neuroscience and demonstrated about brain function. No discussion of brain damage studies is complete without mentioning the case of Phineas Gage. Occurring in the 1840s, and arguably one of the most famous cases of all time, Gages face, skull, and brain were penetrated, through-and-through by a 3cm thick, 109cm long tamping iron. He was momentarily stunned but regained full consciousness immediately thereafter. He was able to talk and even walk with the help of his men (Harlow, 327). John M. Harlow, the doctor who looked after Gage after his accident, made observations about Gages behavior, such as [Gage has] succeeded in raising himself up, and took one step to his chair, and sat about five minutes. , and Intellectual faculties brightening. When I asked him how long since he was injured, he replied, four weeks this afternoon, at 4Â ½ oclock. Relates the manner in which it occurred, and how he came to the house. He keeps the day of the week and time of day, in his mind. Says he knows more than half of those who inquire after him. Do es not estimate size or money accurately, though he has memory as perfect as ever. (Passage of, 282) Assuming Gage had a normally developed brain, such observations essentially prove the concept of functional localization within the brain. Although it is easy to see this retrospectively because of what modern science has shown, Harlow didnt have the luxury of MRI or other techniques, apart from simple observation. By recognizing that Gages memory, speech, movement, and ability to learn were spared, but [h]is respect for the social conventions by which he once abided had vanished [(His abundant profanity offended those around him)] (Harlow, 327), Harlow was later able to connect Gages changed behavior to the frontal regions of the brain, which paved the way for further studies in seeking out the neural basis of various human capacities (ibid.). Understanding that each part of the brain does, in fact, have its own specific function was a crucial discovery in neuroscience and would have likely been impossible without patients such as Phineas Gage. Another patient similar to that of Gage, in terms of fame and selective damage, is Tan (named for the monosyllabic sound the he produced when trying to speak), the aphasic patient of the French surgeon Paul Broca. In 1861, Broca observed that Tan differed from a sane man only in the loss of articulated speech (Broca, 343). Given Tans symptoms, (for later in life he also presented with insensitivity on the right side, paralysis of both right limbs, weakened vision in his left eye ,and incomplete paralysis of the left cheek, in addition to the lack of speech) (347), Broca claimed that the principle cerebral lesion had to occupy the left hemisphere (ibid.). Only years later during the autopsy could Broca precisely observe the extent of the brain damage. In terms of Tans general behavior, however, Broca noted that [it was] certain that Tan understood almost everything that was said to him (345), that [n]umerical responses were those that he could make the best, by opening or closing his fingers (346), and that [t]he tongue was perfectly freethe patient could move it in all directionsThe muscles of the larynx seemed in no way altered, the quality of the voice was natural, and the sounds that the patient made in pronouncing his monosyllable were perfectly clear (345). These observations clearly indicate that Tan was still capable of expressing concepts, even if he was unable to express them strictly verbally, and that there existed a distinction between general vocal tract usage and speech production. These observations coupled with the results of the autopsy led Broca to realize that there existed of faculty of articulated language (as translated from French), lateralized to the left-hemisphere, distinct from comprehended language (35 6). However, the drawback to Tans case is that given the extent of his brain damage, Broca was still left pondering whether the faculty of articulated language depends on the anterior lobe considered as a whole, or especially on one of the convolutions of this lobe (357). Advances in technology in the next century would greatly strengthen his findings. Though in any case, Tans deficits led to the discovery of language in the left hemisphere and the notion that speaking meaningful words is distinct from general expression of concepts or of comprehending concepts as a whole. The case studied by Carl Wernicke greatly added to Brocas findings and strengthened the model of how language was processed in the brain by presenting a double dissociation between speech production and speech comprehension. Basically, Wernicke found a stroke patient in 1873 whose speech and hearing were unimpaired, but he couldnt make sense of what he read or what was said to him (Alic, 666). As it turned out, this condition, which essentially contrasted that of Brocas patient, Tan, was indeed localized to a different part of the brain. Upon autopsy, Wernicke found a lesion in the rear parietal/temporal region of the patients left brain hemisphere (ibid.). However, Wernicke regarded this facet of speech production and posited a connectionist-style theory of language production, thus he postulated that Brocas area and [his] area were connected, anddamage to this connection would cause conduction aphasia, a syndrome wherein a patient could both speak and understand language, but would misuse words (ibid.). From this connectionist notion, Wernicke theorized more deeply about general associations of a concept with language. In 1886, he made the claim that, in order to understand the word bell, the telegram arriving in [the speech comprehension center] must arouse in us the concept of the bell, i.e. the different memory images of the bell deposited in the cortex and localized in accordance with the sensory organs involved in their development. These areacousticoptictactileand finallymotor imagesthe arousal of each one separately is communicated to the others and they constitute a functional unit (Code, 15-16). Unaided by modern neuroimaging technology, Wernicke made a big step forward in connectionist-model theories on semantic associations and language production/comprehension. Together, Broca and Wernicke set the stage for studying language in the brain by having observed patients with specific brain damages and consequently conjecturing about the nature of the healthy human brain. Modern cognitive neuropsychology certainly follows the same principles in terms of assessing brain damage and theorizing about models of information streams. However, contemporary neuropsychologists have the benefit of computers, brain scanners, TMS, and, as seen in the next case, also infrared emitting diodes (IREDs). This next case is another classic, albeit much more recent: the study of patient DF by Goodale and Milner. DF was a middle-aged woman who was plagued by brain damage after carbon monoxide poisoning (Goodale, 154). The researchers could localize the damage without needing an autopsy thanks to MRI, which allowed further testing and studying to occur with knowledge of which structures were afflicted: the ventral and lateral occipital region, and in the parasagittal occipitoparietal region. After beginning neuropsychological testing, the researchers discovered that DF had a visual form agnosia (ibid.). Overall she showed poor perception of shapeorientationcolourintensitystereopsismotionproximitycontinuity, or similarity (Goodale, 154-155). Goodale and Milner ran several tests to discern how profoundly the visual form agnosia affected DF, and they came to realize a striking dissociation between [her] ability to perceive object orientation and her ability to direct accurate reaching movements toward objects (155). In one experiment DF had to indicate the orientation of a slot using a card by orienting the card similarly to the slot. Goodale notes that results here were grossly impaired (ibid), but when [she] was asked to reach out and post thecard through the slother performance was excellent (ibid.). The researchers ran a similar test to measure grip aperture between her index finger and thumb when she would pick up a small plaque. Here they employed the IREDs to measure the distance between the fingers and have numerical data to work with. Such a simple task is rendered quantitative (and thus scientifically measurable) merely by the technology available at the time. This second experiment had results similar to those of the first. Goodale notes that DFs estimates [of her grip aperture] did not change as a function of the width of the plaques (ibid.). However, when DF had to reach for the plaques and grab them, the aperturewas systematically related to the width of the object (ibid.). This profound dissociation arising from DFs brain damage led Goodale and Milner to suggest that at some level in the normal brains the visual processing underlying conscious perceptual judgments must operate separately from that underlying the automatic visuomotor guidance of skilled actions. (ibid). Such a claim of the brain having information that lies at a subconscious level could not have been postulated at the time without the (un)fortunate brain damage that afflicted DF. Building off of this notion of subconscious visual processing, the development of TMS has allowed researchers to test visual awareness (among other things) by momentarily disrupting parts of the brain via a magnetic pulse, effectively creating fake brain damage that is reversible: the immediate benefit being a neuropsychological approach to a question without needing to wait for a patient with precisely the right brain damage to appear. Ro discusses TMS experiments whose behavioral results are similar to those found by Goodale and Milner when testing DF. In the experiments, TMS suppressed primary visual cortex and despite unawareness of the orientation of a line in one experiment and unawareness of the colour of a dot in another experiment, subjects were nonetheless able to guess the orientation and colour of these stimuli presented within their TMS-induced scotomas at well-above chance levels (111). From this, he concludes that the results suggest a geniculoextrastriate pathway that bypasses V1 and projects directly from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) into extrastriate cortex, likely area V4. [Such] a direct anatomical pathway from LGN to V4 has been demonstrated in lower primates (112). However, Ro further postulates that information relayed through [the aforementioned] pathway is unconscious, at least without a functioning V1 (ibid.), a profound step toward the comprehension of human consciousness and what actually gives rise to the experience of awareness. The final case discussed in this paper is that of Etcoffs 1991 study of LH, a minister who suffered a severe closed head injury in an automobile accident at the age of 18. The accident and the surgical procedures it necessitated[resulted in] bilateral lesions affecting visual association corticesthe right temporal lobe, the left subcortical occipitotemporal white matter, and bilateral perietooccipital regions (Etcoff, 27). Etcoff remarked that predominant resulting behavior change was that LH can recognize most pictures of objects and most objects encountered in daily life, [but] he is unable to recognize the faces of his wife, children, friends, or members of his family of origin (28). Etcoff noted that in various tasks, LH found other strategies to guess the identity of the person. During a famous faces task, he recognize hairstyles, insignias, and uniforms to correctly guess whose face was presented to him, even though he couldnt recognize the face itself (28-29). This indicates that LH still has a semantic connection between, for example Einsteins hair and his identity, but the facial recognition portion of this association network was knocked out. More interestingly, LH was given the task of recognizing impossible faces from normal ones, i.e. duplicate facial features, strangely oriented features, etc., and consequently Etcoff commented that LH was able to distinguish a true from an impossible face with 97% accuracy[he] can truly recognize faces as faces, and is sensitive not just to gross information such as number of features and relative placement, but to subtler relational information about feature orientation (29). This shows a clear distinction between recognizing a face as an object and recognizing the semantic information that each individual face carries with it, thus the human brain must process faces specially, a process that is still studied extensively today. Etcoff even shared that LH likens the experience of looking at a face to attempting to read illegible handwriting: you know that it is handwriting, you know where the words and letters stop and start, but you have no clue as to what they signify (29). These six cases have demonstrated important discoveries about how the brain works through the lens of neuropsychology. From functional specialization and a man surviving a tamping iron blasting through his prefrontal cortex disrupting his personality, to distinct linguistic systems for producing and comprehending speech, to visual information existing in the brain without conscious knowledge of it, to the idea of primary visual cortex leading an essential role in consciousness, to faces being specially processed entities in the human brain, studying damaged brains has arguably led to understanding certain facets of the brain that otherwise might have been unimaginable. Furthermore, these six cases were only a handful of discoveries that have arisen from observing the behavioral results of brain damaged patients, used to illustrate the benefits of taking a neuropsychological approach to unraveling the mysteries of brain. However, every methodology has some amount of drawbacks, and neuropsychology is not excluded. For example, given a lesion in some area of the brain, the resulting change in behavior must be a function of how the damaged area was affected. But what is this function exactly? Why should brain damage cause the output that it does instead of some very similar but sightly different behavioral change? If it is a question of reductionism, then its only a matter of time before the gap between behavior and structure is solved, but at present, neuropsychology doesnt answer this. Secondly, brain damage tends to be accidental, and accidents can be messy (e.g. car crash). Lesions dont tend to be as simple as unplugging a single cable from the television, where only one aspect of the TV is clearly affected. Thus, finding clean, precise lesions that alter only one part of the brain is far less likely then finding diffuse brain damage. Even if a patient tends to have only one predominant behavioral change, it cannot be said with full certainty that other parts of his brain werent affected or arent contributing, to some degree, to the new behavioral output, thus possibly confounding data despite very careful experimental designs. Additionally, there is the question of neural plasticity, which Ro brings to attention in his study by mentioning that reorganisation of brain functionalso complicate[s] examinations of sensory processing and visual awareness (110), which is where the advent of TMS has been very helpful in that, apart from its aforementioned advantages, it drastically reduces or eliminates any opportunities for neural plasticity (ibid.). The issue here is that plasticity in brain damaged patients might result in a level of rewiring that is abnormal or unexpected, thus rendering the way in which parts of their brain function unique only to them. All in all, however, every methodology has its pros and cons, and neuropsychology has provided science with a myriad of profound insights into the brain and its functions. The disadvantages it carries with it serve as a reminder as to how careful one must be when interpreting data about an entity as enigmatic and elusive as the brain.

Drinking Regime Evaluation of Boluses

Drinking Regime Evaluation of Boluses Ondrej Hanu; Daniel Bro, Milan Ã…  imko, Branislav Glik, Miroslav Jurek, Michal Rolinec, Robert Herke Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic Original Paper Drinking regime evaluation with continuous ruminal monitoring boluses The aim of this study was to continuously monitored drinking regime of 7 dairy cows of Holstein breed using boluses during 24 weeks of lactation in relation to the outside temperature and observed daily drinking regime with the impact of drinking on rumen temperature at University Experimental Farm in Oponice. Animals were fed once daily and milked 3 times per day. The bolus pH and temperature values implemented via esophagus were measured every 15 minutes (96 data points per day) with accuracy  ±0.1 ph and  °C. Outside temperature by FREEMETEO meteorological server (48 times per day) was measured. Outside temperature can affect the drinking regime of dairy cows. During lactation weeks with higher outside temperature higher average number of drinking events (ANDE) was determined. The biggest difference between weeks in ANDE 18.33% (p=0.000) was found. Daily ANDE 9.25 ±1.85 and average daily temperature (ADT) 19.03 ±5.19  °C were observed. The most of the drinking events (ND E) concentrated to 4 main peaks (25.17%) during working hours (74.98%) was found. After the feed intake and milking the highest frequencies of NDE were observed. The highest average ruminal temperature after drinking (ARTAD) during night before first feeding due to lower NDE in this time were found. Overall ARTAD 36.86  °C was observed. The most measured ruminal temperatures after drinking (RTAD) (51.53%) in the interval 35 37  °C were found. This research proved that continuous ruminal monitoring with boluses is an appropriate tool for drinking regime evaluation and heat stress determination in herd of dairy cows. Keywords: bolus, rumen, temperature, water intake, outside temperature Water supplies for both humans and livestock are becoming a subject of increasing importance. Indeed, climate change and drinking water deficits in certain areas have meant that supplies of clean water for livestock are becoming problematic, at least during certain periods of the year. Water is considered the most important nutrient for health and performance in dairy herds. Loss of water from the body occurs through milk production, urine and fecal excretion, sweat and vapour loss from lungs (NRC, 2001). A adequate water intake is essential to avoid negative effects on animal health, performance and welfare (Murphy,1992; Meyer et al., 2004), and 25 and 50% restriction of drinking water relative to ad libitum intake decreased feed intake and milk yield in dairy cows (Steiger Burgos et al., 2001). Results of several experiments showed that an average of 83% of the water demand is met by drinking (NRC, 2001). Many studies found the association between water intake and outside temperatu re and between water intake and the number of drinking events (Matarazzo et al., 2003; Brown-Brandl et al., 2006; Arias et al., 2008). Drinking activity can be monitored continuously and simultaneously for randomly enrolled cows using a data acquisition system based on an individual radio frequency identification collar (Cardot et al., 2008) or with observers (Jago et al., 2005). Huzzey et al. (2005) monitored drinking activity of dairy cows using video cameras connected to a video multiplexer and a time-lapse videocassette recorder. Bewley et al. (2008) monitored ruminal temperature using boluses permanently residing in the cows reticulum and indentified temperatures influenced by drinking events. The aim of this study was to monitored drinking regime of dairy cows using boluses during lactation in relation to the outside temperature, daily drinking regime and the impact of drinking on rumen temperature. 2.1 Animals and housing Measured data from 7 dairy cows of Holstein breed (average age 3.57) in cooperation with the University Experimental Farm in Oponice during 24 lactation weeks were collected. Selected cows had average milk production 10 175 kg per lactation with 3.94% of fats, 3.10% of crude proteins and 4.70% of lactose. Experimental cows were housed in the groups with another dairy cows together. 2.2 Feeding and water availability Animals were fed once daily with Total Mix Ratio (Table 1) ad libitum between 4:00 and 5:00 and milked 3 times per day at 6:00, 12:00 and 18:00. Corn silage (pH 3.85) and alfalfa silage acidity (pH 4.85) with Sodium Bicarbonate (550 g.head-1) and Magnesium Oxide (51 g.head-1) were neutralised. In one section for 20 dairy cows two drinkers were available. Table 1 Total Mix Ratio composition DM (kg) NEL (MJ.kg-1) CP (%) NDF (%) Starch (%) 25.45 153.86 15.74 24.35 25.39 abbreviations: DM dry mater, NEL netto energy of lactation, CP crude protein, NDF neutral detergent fiber 2.3 Data measuring and data collecting Every dairy cow had implemented farm bolus for continual data measuring which was implemented through esophagus orally with the use of special balling gun. The bolus pH and temperature values were measured every 15 minutes (96 data points per day) with accuracy  ±0.1. Outside temperature by FREEMETEO meteorological server (48 times per day) was measured. Used boluses (eCow Devon, Ltd., Great Britain) are characteristic with its small dimensions (135 27 mm) and weight 207 g. Data with the handset with antenna and dongle connected with USB dongle connector with the radio frequency 434 MHz in the milking parlour were downloaded. Collected data were summarized with HathorHBClient v. 1.8.1. 2.4 Statistical evaluation Statistical evaluation with IBM SPSS v. 20.0 was realised. Descriptive statistics with One-way ANOVA were recalculated. Statistically differences between average daily outside temperatures (ADT), average ruminal temperatures after drinking (ARTAD) and average numbers of drinking events (ANDE) with post hoc Tukey Test were determined. Effect of outside temperature on number of drinking events with Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was realised. As drinking event a decrease in ruminal temperature less than -0.70% and ruminal pH less than 0.00% with previous data point using data filter was selected. Drinking regime of dairy cows during lactation with average temperatures during drinking events in the Figure 1 are shown. ANDE during monitored period 9.25 ±1.85 and ADT 19.03 ±5.19 were observed. Minimal reported ANDE found Jago et al. (2005) 5.2. Higher average ANDE for monitored period observed Huzzey et al. (2005) 9.5 ±0.4 and Perera et al. (1986) 9.4. Cardot et al. (2008) determined ANDE 7.3 ±2.8 during their experiment. The effect of ADT r=0.132 on ANDE was determined (p=0.001) but in 19 cases the same change both increase or decrase in the comparison with previous week between ANDE and ADT was found. Gonzà ¡lez Pereyra et al. (2010) found effect of outside temperature on ANDE r=0.507 (p

Essay --

Analyzing the Feminine Macbeth is a play where female characters have a big influence in terms of the direction of where the male characters will end up. Male Characters such as Macbeth build desperate ambition that leads him into a path full of consequences based on prophecies, and influences enforced by women. This desperate ambition makes a big influence on the path of the play. Female characters such as the three witches and Lady Macbeth play around with characters such as Macbeth who is probably the most important character in the play. By encountering, telling him seductive prophecies and manipulating him, to make sure that Macbeth overcome his obstacles; While Macbeth not knowing that later on in his life these prophecies will become true but with full of consequences. These three Agents of fate whose prophecies hold the inevitable and this cruel and highly ambitious Lady Macbeth use female methods such as, manipulation to achieve power; which shows that in the play women can be far more frightening and ambitious than the male characters because of the paths available to them due to gender The three witches also known as â€Å"the three weird sisters† are three witches with dark thoughts and unconscious temptations to evil. Although the witches are servants of Hecate, These three seem to be very independent and very powerful; in fact the three witches are the most dangerous characters in the play, being both very powerful and wicked. Through the play these three speak in in rhyming lines, their most famous and most repeated line is â€Å"Double, double, toil and trouble, / Fire burn and cauldron bubble† which is said in most of the scenes in which they ... ...proved that they can be as ambitious and as violent as men through their actions and intentions. Nunez #7 Works Cited Page 1) Allcock, Bradley . "The Roles of Masculinity and Femininity in Macbeth". 12. 2009. Web. 12. 2009. 2 ) Asp, Carolyn. "BMCC Library: Remote Access." BMCC Library: Remote Access. N.p., 1981. Web.11Dec.2013. 3) Daniel, Albright. "BMCC Library: Remote Access." BMCC Library: Remote Access. N.p., 17 Mar. 2005. Web. 11 Dec. 2013. .

The History of Hysteria Essay -- Exploratory Essays

The History of Hysteria W. Somerset Maugham’s The Moon and Sixpence is essentially a novel about a man’s struggle to free himself from the restrictions of society and to act out his most passionate desire--to paint. However, Maugham’s novel is also a story of its time and therefore reflects popular theories and ideas that were prevalent at the time of its writing. Included in these ideas is Hysteria, mentioned clearly when the narrators describes the doctor’s view of Blanche’s attempt to kill herself as â€Å"just a hysterical woman who had quarreled with her lover...it was constantly happening. (Maugham 123). The following will describe the development, symptoms and treatment of Hysteria. Hysteria, considered a â€Å"neurotic illness† (www.a2zpsychology.com/a2z%20guide/hysteria.htm) was considered a disorder in which a person, usually a woman, exhibited physical symptoms yet no physical cause could be found. Coming from the Greek for â€Å"uterus,† or â€Å"hysteria,† Hysteria was thought to be related to the uterus or an altered menstrual cycle. Hysteria’s symptoms were many, but the most notable included â€Å"inappropriate elation or sadness† (www.healthlibrary.com/reading/ncure/chap94.htm), excessive laughing or crying followed by an abrupt return to a normal state, fainting, panic, paralysis, cramps in the body and a â€Å"sense of constriction of the throat.† (www.healthlibrary.com/reading/ncure/chap94.htm) The French doctor Jean-Martin Charcot, a pioneer in the field of psychiatry in the mid-nineteenth century, insisted that there were four stages to a â€Å"full hysterical attack:† 1. Tonic Rigidity 2. Clonic spasms and grand movements 3. Attitudes passionelles, or vivid physical representations of one or more emotional states 4. Final delirium-... ...n appreciates† (SOURCE) and Hearst’s magazine urged husbands to purchase them as Christmas gifts to â€Å"keep their wives young and pretty and free from Hysteria.† However, as Freud initiated a new type of thinking in the psychiatric world, vibrators fell out of use and were replaced by more â€Å"modern† cures such as psychoanalysis. While hysteria is no longer a medical condition, it is important to note its effect both on the medical world and the steps it took to cure it as well as the effect it had on women and their standing in society. SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION: www.healthlibrary.com/reading/ncure/chap94.htm This web site provides a very complete description of the history, causes, symptoms and cures for Hysteria. Also, for further reading, try Charlotte Perkins Gillman’s The Yellow Wallpaper and Other Short Stories, available from Penguin Publishers.

Agamemnon Essay -- essays research papers

In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon there are many different opinions about what kind of king and commander Agamemnon was. Some argued that he was good, while others dispute that his motives were wrong. Clytemnestra, Agamemnon’s wife, gained a strong hatred for him, after he sacrificed his own daughter so he could go to war. Many believe that this was not necessary and could have been overcome. The chorus seems to agree with this to an extent, and feels that Agamemnon could have prayed and requested that he not sacrifice his daughter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Clytemnestra, after Agamemnon was at war for a few years, began to cheat on Agamemnon with his cousin, Aegisthus. When the two got word of Agamemnon’s return from Troy they began to plot against Agamemnon. Clytemnestra prayed to the Gods to let Agamemnon make it home because she wanted to punish him herself. Even though most of the other ships did not make it home after the storms, Agamemnon’s did. Many believe this is because of the prayer that was prayed by Clytemnestra.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Clytemnestra first set Agamemnon up by placing a purple carpet on the ground for him to walk on. By doing this Clytemnestra was hoping to get Agamemnon to upset the gods so it wouldn’t be a sin for her to carry out her plan. Agamemnon even acknowledges that he shouldn’t walk on the carpet saying that, were he to walk on it, he would display unseemly pride and incur the wrath of the gods: â€Å"Such state becomes the gods and none be...

Mill’s Utilitarianism Analysis Essay

Thesis: Objectors of Utilitarianism states that there is no time for calculating and weighing the effects on utilizing the general happiness. On the contrary, Mill says that mankind has been learning by experience the tendency of actions in order to know what is right and wrong. The rules of morality is improvable, therefore we should pass all that experience on others. However, improving the rules of morality is one thing, but to educate it to the younger is another; since there is still much to learn about the effects of actions on general happiness, and all rational people go through life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong. Reasons: 1. Philosopher and the human: They have to acquire experience about the effects of some actions on their happiness and improving it or at least maintain it. . Traveler: Mill uses the traveler going for his destination as for if a man needs to follow the rules of general happiness, we should open the way and direct him to the knowledge, and not to forbid it. 3. Sailors: They go to sea with it calculated on the Nautical Almanac. Therefore, as for the people, they go on the sea of life with a made up mind on the common questions of right and wrong, and more complicated questions of wise and foolish. Discussion: Mill’s defend against the objectors of Utilitarianism is that the rules of general happiness are made up by the experience of the people. Also, it is improvable by teaching it to the younger and other people. But, he also argues that human are rational creature. Human are capable of answering the questions of right and wrongness by their own experience, and they also capable of learning and experiencing more on their way of life.

Manchester United Ltd

1. 0 INTRODUCTION Whether, we realized it or not, from the moment we are brought in this world and growing up in our everyday live we are living in and going through a life a full of organization with a certain mission and goal to achieve. We can take something that is truly close to our heart as an organization, our dearest family. A family has a systematic structure as an organization; we have our father who sit at the top and make most of the important decision, our mother who is second in command.And also their children who assist in accomplish the goal and purpose. Even thought this is just how I see a successful organization, but what is truly the meaning of organization thought the eye of a book. An organization defines as a systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some specific purpose. A common characteristic of organization are have a distinct goal and purpose, comprise people working together to accomplish certain objectives, a systematic structure a nd an aim to serve the society.Through this assignment we are going to look into an organization of a company and look through all the characteristics in making them an organization. For my organization I have chosen Manchester United Football Club Limited as my choice of organization. Almost all part of the world, where ever you step your feet in this world people will recognize the global brand of Manchester United so this include them as one of the biggest organization in the world. The reason I choose Manchester United because of my passion for this club and my enthusiasm in football as a leading market in sport or maybe even the world.Other than that, Manchester United is also a perfect family oriented company, where their responsibilities is not just for the owner, director and staff but also to the supporters and fans of the club who gave almost everything to our beloved club. They have the obligate not just for the owner and director but also to the fans. MANCHESTER UNITED F OOTBALL CLUB LIMITED 2. 0 Introduction The club was formed as Newton Heath L&YR F. C. in 1878 as the works team of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath, changing its name to Manchester United in 1902.Prior to the 2005 takeover by the Glazer family the company had traded as Manchester United plc on the London Stock Exchange since 1991 and prior to flotation was registered as Manchester United Football Club Limited. Manchester United is one of the wealthiest and most widely supported football teams in the world. As of July 2011, the club is number one in Forbes magazine's annual ranking of the world's 50 most valuable sports teams, valued at $1. 86  billion. 2. 1 Nature of business Manchester United business revenues come in from mainly five sources: 1.Match-day Income (money made from home games through ticket sales and other match-day activities) 2. Broadcasting Rights 3. Commercial Tie-ups (sponsorships, etc) 4. Merchandise 5. Catering Manchester United main nature of business is football. Ticketing for Football matches play a big part in generating income for Manchester united. And with this Old Trafford was build to accommodate football matches for Manchester united. With Old Trafford's having capacity boosted to 75,800. The crowds of about 250,000 should generate match day revenue of ? 2. 8m on each occasion, more than ? . 1m of that figure from corporate sales. And with match-day ticket prices having doubled since over the past few years, United can make a bulk of their earning through ticket sales. As we all know football match is play on television all around the world and Manchester United is not excluded from this. In England the Football Association is the one responsible in collectively sells TV rights for the English football club. Because higher league placement results in a greater share of television rights, success on the field generates greater income for the club.Since the inception of the Premier League, Manchester Un ited has received the largest share of the revenue generated from the  BSkyB  broadcasting United have also significantly income in their Commercial revenue, through sponsorship deals with AON and NIKE. Also the whopping ? 10m/yr training kit deal with DHL given that the AON deal for the jersey itself is ? 20m/yr. Manchester United has also consistently enjoyed the highest commercial income of any English club. The club's commercial arm generated ? 51  million. A key sponsorship relationship is with sportswear company  Nike, who manage the club's merchandising operation as part of a ? 03  million 13-year partnership established in 2002. Through  Manchester United Finance  and the club's membership scheme,  One United, those with an affinity for the club can purchase a range of branded goods and services. Additionally, Manchester United-branded media services – such as the club's dedicated television channel,  MUTV  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ have allowed the club to expand its fan base to those beyond the reach of its Old Trafford stadium. Other than that, the opening of red devils cafe at the stadium and around the world helps in exploring a new kind of business and also revenues.Figure 1. 1 Manchester United: Revenue source and percentages 2. 2 Country of origin. Manchester United was formed in Newton Heath, United Kingdom in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the  Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot. But the club changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to  Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom in 1910. 2. 3 How long has it been in business? Manchester United was formed is 1878 and it is still operating of as now. So the company have been in business for 134 years. . 4 How global is the company. Manchester United globalization is a very special one indeed. Football main customers in business are the fans, Manchester United is not just broaden England but across the world i n that fact. But how did this happen? From a small railway team into one of the leading global brand in the world. It all started in 1956, Manchester  United  became the first English club to take part in the European cup, a competition that are watch all over the world, thru this showing the growth in the club and how it is started in becoming ore global and In 1968 Manchester  United  became the first English club to win the European cup and opening the eyes of people. Since that, Manchester United have been a hugely dominating force in the worlds scene, in England, in Europe, and ultimately around the world. Another reason is the ownership of the club. Manchester  United  generally tended to be owned by hundreds of shareholders, primarily from the UK and Ireland. However in 2005, after J. P. McManus  and John  Magnier (two Irish men) sold their shares in the club to Malcolm  Glazer he brought his stake in the club up to 75%, thus gaining control.Glazer is an Ame rican business tycoon, this contributed in the spread of Manchester United  to America. The globalization of Manchester  United  can certainly be seen through the companies that sponsor the club. Out of the 12 main sponsors of the club, not one is British, instead coming from America, Germany, Switzerland, Turkey, Russia, China, Korea, Malaysia and the Middle East. We can also see the globalization thru the squad Manchester united, out of 30 players, 17 are not from the UK, instead, coming from places such as Brazil, Portugal, Spain, Serbia and Bulgaria, amongst others.We take Park Ji Sung as an example, a Korean player. Park is a mega star in his home country and thus has increased Manchester United's fan base significantly in Korea, and Asia. But there were other events that contribute to the Manchester United Globalization such as the Munich Air Disaster in 1958, were the Manchester united plane crash after a match in Munich. People felt sorry for the club and public heart was touched thus creating more fan base. 2. 5 Market values Estimated value: $1. 83 billion (? 1. 19 million)United have reaped the financial benefits of lucrative sponsorship deals with the likes of Nike and Aon, as well as a myriad of other income-generating endeavours such as their in-house television channel MUTV, which is currently beamed into over 190 million households worldwide to secure themselves an estimated global value of over $1. 8 billion (? 1. 1 billion). United are thought to have upwards of 333 million followers across the world, with a core contingent of 139 million supporters 2. 6 Top management of the company Owner: Glazer family via Red Football Shareholder Limited[136] * Honorary president:  Martin Edwards[137] Manchester United Limited * Co-chairmen:  Joel Glazer  &  Avram Glazer[138] * Chief executive:  David Gill[138] * Chief operating officer: Michael Bolingbroke[138] * Commercial director: Richard Arnold[139] * Chief of Staff: Ed Woodward[140] * Non-executive directors:  Bryan Glazer, Kevin Glazer, Edward Glazer & Darcie Glazer[138] Manchester United Football Club * Directors:  David Gill,  Michael Edelson,  Sir Bobby Charlton,  Maurice Watkins[140] * Club secretary:  John Alexander[141] Global ambassador:  Bryan Robson[142] Coaching and medical staff * Manager:  Sir Alex Ferguson[143] * Assistant manager:  Mike Phelan[144] * First team coach:  Rene Meulensteen[145] * Goalkeeping coach:  Eric Steele[146] * Fitness coach:  Tony Strudwick[147] * Reserve team manager:  Warren Joyce[148] 2. 7 Shareholders. Malcolm Glazer is a US based businessman who bought 100% of Manchester United PLC and delisted United from the London Stock Exchange in 2005, through a holding company called Red Football. The Glazers purchased their first share of Manchester United on 2 March 2003, spending around ?   million on a 2. 9% stake. On 26 September 2003, it was reported that he had increased his share to 3. 17%,  tak ing his shareholding above the 3%. By 20 October, he had increased his shareholding to 8. 93%,  and on 29 November it was reported that he owned around 15%. On 12 February 2004, Glazer increased his stake in the club to 16. 31% and the following day's  Financial Times  reported that he had instructed  Commerzbank  to explore a takeover bid. Glazer increased his shareholding to over 19% the following June, although he was still not the largest shareholder.His shareholding continued to increase, nearing 30% by October 2004. Upon reaching 30%, Glazer would have to launch a formal takeover bid. On 12 May 2005, Glazer reached an agreement with  shareholders  J. P. McManus  and  John Magnier  to purchase their 28. 7% stake in the team, giving him a controlling stake with just under 57% of the team's shares. He then managed to secure the stake of the third largest stakeholder, Scottish mining entrepreneur Harry Dobson, taking his share to 62% of the club. Just hours lat er, Glazer had bought a further 9. 8% stake taking his total ownership to 71. 8%.On 16 May 2005, Glazer took his shareholding in Manchester United to 75%, allowing him to end the club's  public limited company  (PLC) status and delist it from the  London Stock Exchange, which he did on 22 June. On 14 June 2005, Glazer successfully increased his share in the club to 97. 3%, sufficient for full control. On 28 June, he increased his share to 98%, enough for a compulsory buyout of all remaining shareholders. The final valuation of the club was almost ? 800  million. 2. 8 Stakeholders Manchester United has a number of stakeholders. Stakeholders are an individual or group with a direct interest in an organisations performance.The main stakeholders are the employees, owners, customers, suppliers, financer, fans and the local community. Manchester United employees apart from the football players also consist of   employees that are responsible in sales, marketing, communication, h uman resources and finance. These departments exist in football clubs as well as in traditional companies. From the employees their main interests are to get pay rises and to get better training, the team players for example want better training so they can perform better and more effectively.The fans main interests are, that Manchester United play good games, watch good players and win as much possible, and the owners get more profit. The main interests of the financers, example the sponsors wants to make sure there brand name gets advertised and their company logo is seen on the players shirts, they also want a team that wins the matches so that their company can be associated with a winning champion team. The suppliers are also stakeholders and their main interests are that Manchester united keep-purchasing products from them so they will be making lots of profits. . 9 Corporate Social Responsibilities. The Club’s mission is to be the best football club in the world, both on and off the pitch. It also believes that Manchester United should be a part of the community in the widest sense and that its success should not only be measured in the number of trophies it wins, but also by the impact it has on the community in which it exists. Manchester United as it has taken great strides towards achieving a number of off-field goals which have supported its ambition to be a socially integrated and responsible organisation.Manchester United is committed to tackling environmental and social issues at regional, national and international level, using the Manchester United brand to leverage support and create awareness of the issues facing the planet. Here is some of Manchester United CSR program: 1. Hub of the Community: Hub schools are based in secondary schools within Partington, Wythenshawe and Salford. Each has up to 12 feeder primary schools and the structure of the programme allows for a long term relationship to be developed. The participants benefit fr om consistent provision with sessions being delivered both within and in addition to the curriculum. . Something to Chew On: An interactive project aimed at teaching 7-8 year olds about their own health and wellbeing. 3. Premier Men’s Health: Aims to use football to deliver key messages about health and encourage men over 18 to lead a healthier lifestyle. 4. KICKZ: The Foundation has run KICKZ since 2006. The project uses the power of football and the appeal of the Manchester United brand to target hard to reach and challenging communities. The project aims to create safer, stronger and more respectful communities by developing young people’s potential. 5. Girls Centre of Excellence:The Manchester United Foundation Girl’s FA Centre of Excellence aims to provide opportunities for girls to play at the highest level, with the eventual view of developing them into international players. 6. Disability Centre of Excellence: The Foundation runs a Centre of Excellence f or disabled players in partnership with the Manchester FA, with the specific aim of developing the more talented players from the Ability Counts leagues into the national squads. 2. 10 Employees Being successful off the pitch as well as on it requires Manchester United to have employees who are as committed to the success of the company.Manchester United currently employing around 505 people including manager, backroom staff and players. 3. 0 Conclusion Manchester United can be proud of every achievement that came in their way. Started from only a railway football team that focus just to play some football into one of the biggest football team, company and brand in the world. The dedication and spirit of the players and community to see their team perform at the highest level is truly something to be wandered, although have nothing to gain from it just pride that came in their mind.From the management of the company to the staff and players, they all made this happen. Without the pe rformance of the football player in the pitch, the organization of the backroom staff and also the fans all of this cannot be achieve, Manchester United is truly a one united company. As conclusion, of course if given an opportunity to work with them it will be a big pleasure. Although not as a footballer but as Director or Head of Marketing Strategy ( Asia) will be an honour for myself.